 Past
President of the Parapsychological Association (1959, 1971)
Professor of Psychology, City University of New York
Professor Emeritus, City College of the City University of New York.
I’m an experimental psychologist, and my research was primarily in
perception and memory - until a seminar changed my life. In 1942 I began a
part-time job at Harvard (seven years after my doctorate there), saw a
seminar on psychical research was offered, and listened in to find what
could be said for this bizarre topic. Gardner Murphy’s lectures, and his
suggested readings, left me half-fascinated, half-incredulous. Murphy then
offered me a stipend from Harvard’s Richard Hodgson Fund to experiment on
ESP. I accepted, hoping an experiment would tell me what to think about
the topic.
The data convinced me. Repeatedly, average ESP scores of subjects who
rejected any possibility of ESP success (whom I called goats) were lower
than average ESP scores of all other subjects (whom I called sheep). This
was inexplicable by the physical laws we knew; it implied unexplored
processes in the universe, an exciting new field for research. From then
on, naturally, my primary research interest was parapsychology.
In 1947 I became an instructor at City College, and in due course a
professor, teaching only standard psychology. After many years, to my
surprise, I was asked to give a parapsychology course for doctoral
students, then a similar course for M.A. students, then for
undergraduates. But from the first, many of the M. A. theses that I
mentored were in parapsychology, and so were, later, five of the doctoral
dissertations I chaired.
With student volunteers as subjects I did many small-budget ESP
experiments; once even a PK experiment with Ingo Swann, financed by a
grant from Carlson, inventor of Xerox. (Good PK apparatus is expensive.)
The Parapsychology Foundation helped some projects with its grants. Very
great help always came from the wisdom and resources of Gardner Murphy,
and from cooperative and brilliant students who joined the research.
My experiments tried to address the criticism that ESP is a fact without a
theory; four outcomes seem to rebut it. (1) Personality variables have
similar effects on scores in ESP and in other tasks. Psychological theory
makes effective predictions about ESP; thus it is a part of ESP’s theory
too. (2) Telepathy not only can transmit information, it can also activate
a general readiness to use or to inhibit ESP (1961). This aligns ESP
processes with theories of social and cultural influences, which also
activate or inhibit the use of particular abilities. (3) Precognition can
be effective for information never known by any person (targets are
randomized and scored by machine but never printed). This extends
psychological and social theory; it shows we have access to a wide,
unexplored range of stimuli. (4) PK effects in one area are balanced by
compensating physical changes elsewhere (1973). ESP seems to show direct
access to distant events; PK a direct influence on them. This research
explored how PK operates, implying that our influence shifts the balance
of physical processes. (I must add that items 2 and 4 above have not been
replicated by others; they thus are weaker than 1 and 3.)
To my regret, I could never think of a method that was both rigorous and
practical for research on the most exciting possibilities suggested by ESP
and PK: problems of the basic characteristics of consciousness or of the
self. They await the research of others.
I also held various offices, including the presidency, in the
Parapsychological Association and (while it still did research) in the
American Society for Psychical Research.
Throughout I depended on my husband’s cheerful tolerance of my
professional activity. We have four children and seven grandchildren.
Selected Publications:
Predicting good and bad scores in a clairvoyance experiment: A
preliminary report. Journal of the American Society for Psychical
Research, 1943, 37, 103-110.
Predicting good and bad scores in a clairvoyance experiment: A final
report. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1943, 37,
210-221.
Position effects as psychological phenomena. Journal of Parapsychology,
1944, 8, 110-124.
Separating the sheep from the goats. Journal of the American Society
for Psychical Research, 1945, 39, 46-49.
with G. Murphy, The influence of belief and disbelief in ESP upon
individual scoring levels. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1946, 36,
271-276.
Rorschach variables in relation to ESP scores. Journal of the American
Society for Psychical Research, 1947, 41, 35-64.
with L. W. Allison, A repetition of Carington’s experiments with free
drawings. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1948,
42, 97-107.
Research projects in parapsychology. Journal of Parapsychology, 1948,
13, 23-31.
Personality correlates of ESP as shown by Rorschach studies. Journal of
Parapsychology, 1949, 13, 23-31.
Comparisons of ESP scores with Rorschachs scored by different workers.
Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1949, 43, 94-98.
Some relations between Picture-Frustration ratings and ESP scores.
Journal of Personality, 1950, 18, 331-343.
With L. Eilbert, A study of certain psychological factors in relation
to ESP performance. Journal of Parapsychology, 1950, 14, 53-74.
ESP performance and the Rorschach test. Journal of the Society for
Psychical Research, 1950, 35, 323-338.
with A. O. Ross and G. Murphy, The spontaneity factor in extrasensory
perception. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1952,
46, 14-16.
Rorschachs and ESP scores of patients suffering from cerebral
concussion. Journal of Parapsychology, 1952, 16, 80-89.
Personal values and ESP scores. Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 1952, 47, 757-761.
Picture-Frustration ratings and ESP scores for subjects who showed
moderate annoyance at the ESP task. Journal of Parapsychology, 1954, 18,
137-152.
A note on the need for rigid testing conditions. Journal of the
American Society for Psychical Research, 1955, 49, 118-119.
With E. Frommer, Analysis and evaluation of a pair of presumably
telepathic dreams. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research,
1956, 50, 74-78.
With R. Gerber, An investigation of relaxation and acceptance of the
experimental situation as related to ESP scores in maternity patients.
Journal of Parapsychology, 1957, 21, 47-57.
Agent-percipient relationships. Journal of the American Society for
Psychical Research, 1958, 52, 47-69.
Analysis and evaluation of proxy sessions with Mrs. Caroline Chapman.
Journal of Parapsychology, 1958, 22, 137-155.
Additional data on sheep-goat classification. Journal of the Society
for Psychical Research, 1959, 40, 63-72.
Exploring the parameters of research variables. Journal of
Parapsychology, 1959, 23, 238-250.
ESP in relation to Rorschach Test evaluation. Parapsychology
Monographs, 1960, 2, 1-89.
Structures of uncertainty. International Journal of Parapsychology,
1960, 4, 103-108.
Are there two kinds of telepathy? Journal of the American Society for
Psychical Research, 1961, 55, 87-97.
Evidence for two kinds of telepathy. International Journal of
Parapsychology, 1961, 3, 5-48.
ESP and tests of perception. Journal of the American Society for
Psychical Research, 1962, 56, 48-51.
Note on precognition with and without knowledge of results.
Psychological Reports, 1962, 11, 486.
An experiment on precognitive clairvoyance: Part 1. The main results.
Journal of Parapsychology, 1964, 28, 1-14.
An experiment on precognitive clairvoyance: Part II. The reliability of
the scores. Journal of Parapsychology, 1964, 28, 15-27.
An experiment on precognitive clairvoyance, Part III. Precognition
scores related to the subject’s way of viewing time. Journal of
Parapsychology, 1964, 94-101.
An experiment on precognitive clairvoyance, Part IV. Precognition
scores related to creativity. Journal of Parapsychology, 1964, 28,
102-108.
An experiment on precognitive clairvoyance: Part V. Precognition scores
related to feelings of success. Journal of Parapsychology, 1964, 28,
109-125.
An experimentalist’s approach to survival research. Journal of the
American Society for Psychical Research, 1965, 59, 156-160.
Quantitative investigation of a “haunted house”. Journal of the
American Society for Psychical Research, 1966, 60, 137-149.
Two horns of a dilemma in relating ESP to personality. Corrective
Psychiatry and Journal of Social Therapy, 1966, 12, 98-114.
Telepathy and resistance to it. Journal of the American Society for
Psychical Research, 1966, 60, 207-209.
With Lindemann, C. ESP calls following an “ESP” test with sensory cues.
Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1966, 60, 357-362.
The influence of attitude on ESP scores. International Journal of
Neuropsychiatry, 1966, 2, 387-397.
ESP breakthroughs: Paranormal effects in real life. Journal of the
American Society for Psychical Research, 1967, 61, 306-325.
A search for feedback in ESP: Part I. Session salience and stimulus
preference. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1968,
62,130-142.
With L. Lewis, A search for feedback in ESP: Part II. High scores after
two successes on triple aspect targets. Journal of the American Society
for Psychical Research, 1968, 62, 255-262.
With T. Moss, Quantitative investigation of a “haunted house” with
sensitives and a control group. Journal of the American Society for
Psychical Research, 1968, 62, 399-410.
With L. Lewis, A search for feedback in ESP: Part III. Journal of the
American Society for Psychical Research, 1969, 83, 60-68.
High ESP scores after a swami’s brief instruction in meditation and
breathing. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1970,
64, 100-1-3.
With L. LeShan, An aspect of body image related to ESP scores. Journal
of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1970, 64, 211-218.
Studying individual psi experiences. Journal of Parapsychology, 1970,
34, 197-209.
With J. Hudesman, ESP scores following therapeutic sessions. Journal of
the American Society for Psychical Research, 1971, 65, 215-222.
Mood and attitude on a pretest as predictors of retest ESP performance.
Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1971, 65, 324-335.
With L. Lewis, Alpha relations with non-intentional and purposeful ESP
after feedback. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research,
1971, 65, 455-467.
Parapsychologists’ opinions about parapsychology, 1971. Journal of
Parapsychology, 1971, 35, 208-216.
With J. G. Craig, Moods and ESP scores in group testing. Journal of the
American Society for Psychical Research, 1972, 66, 280-287.
PK effects upon continuously recorded temperature. Journal of the
American Society for Psychical Research, 1973, 67, 325-340.
Parapsychology: Out of the ivory tower. Osteopathic Physician, 1974,
41, 34-48.
Using ESP: Science fiction or applied science? Counseling and Values,
1975, 19, 135-140.
With B. Brier and B. Savits, Three experiments in clairvoyant diagnosis
with Silva Mind Control graduates. Journal of the American Society for
Psychical Research, 1975, 69, 263-272.
With M. Maher, Quantitative investigation of a recurrent phenomenon.
Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1975, 69, 341-352.
Personality differences in the effective use of ESP. Journal of
Communication, 1975, 25, 133-141.
With R. Friedman and E. D. Dean, Ranked-target scoring for mood and
intragroup effects in precognitive ESP. Journal of the American Society
for Psychical Research, 1976, 70, 195-206.
with J. Hudesman, Changes in ESP scores after therapy sessions. Journal
of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1976, 70, 371-380.
With M. Jackson and S. Franzoi, Effects of feedback on ESP: A curious
partial replication. Journal of the American Society for Psychical
Research, 1977, 71, 147-155.
With M. Maher, Cerebral lateralization effects in ESP processing.
Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1977, 71, 261-271.
Gardner Murphy and his thinking: A retrospect and a prospect. Journal
of Parapsychology, 1979, 43, 86-100.
With M. Maher and D. Persatsakis, Cerebral localization effects in ESP
processing: An attempted replication. Journal of the American Society for
Psychical Research, 1979, 73, 167-177.
Gardner Murphy: A short biography. Journal of the American Society for
Psychical Research, 1980, 74, 1-14.
Rhine’s contributions to experimental methodology and standards of
research. Journal of Parapsychology, 1980, 45, 11-23.
With M. Maher, Judges’ responses to the nonverbal behavior of
psi-conducive and psi-inhibitory experimenters. Journal of the American
Society for Psychical Research, 1981, 75, 241-258.
A possible commonality among gifted psychics. Journal of the American
Society for Psychical Research, 1982, 76, 53-58.
Interpreting reports of out of body experiences. Journal of the Society
for Psychical Research, 1983, 52, 102-104.
ESP and memory: Some limiting conditions. Parapsychological Journal of
South Africa, 1983, 4, 51-69.
Memories of Laura Dale. Journal of the American Society for Psychical
Research, 1983, 77, 273-276.
Further analysis of PK with continuous temperature recordings. Journal
of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1984, 78, 355-362.
Field and stream: Background stimuli and the flow of ESP responses.
Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1985, 79, 13-26.
Subliminal perception and ESP: Order in diversity? Journal of the
American Society for Psychical Research, 1986, 80, 241-264.
The mind-matter relation: Out of metaphysics and into the laboratory.
Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 1987, 7, 12-18.
Is psi a subcognitive process? Journal of Parapsychology, 1990, 54,
321-329.
Perceptual processing of psi: A model. Journal of the American Society
for Psychical Research, 1991, 85, 212-236.
With A. Imich, Formal and informal work with Peter Suglesis. Journal of
the Society for Psychical Research, 1992, 58, 239-243.
With H. Edge, Should ganzfeld resarch continue to be crucial in the
search for a replicable psi effect? Part II. Edited ganzfeld debate.
Journal of Parapsychology, 1999, 63, 335-388.
Books and chapters With R. A. McConnell, ESP and Personality Patterns.
New Haven, CT., Yale University Press, 1958.
The ‘fitting in’ of parapsychological experiments. In I. J. Good (Ed.).
The Scientist Speculates, 1962, Kingswood, Surrey: Windmill Press Ltd.
(pp. 157-158).
Parapsychology. New International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences,
1968, New York: MacMillan Company and Free Press (pp. 386-399).
Contemporary psychologists view parapsychology today. In J. B. Rhine
and R. Brier (EDS). Parapsychology Today. New York: Citadel (pp. 195-203).
Theory building and theory testing. In J. Mihalasky (Ed.). Techniques
and status of modern parapsychology. Newark, NJ: College of Engineering.
The psychic personallity. In J. White (Ed.). Psychic Explorations: A
Challenge for Science. 1974. New York: J. G. Putnam & Sons, 94-110.
(Ed.). Extrasensory Perception. 1974. New York: Lieberman-Atherton.
(Ed.). Parapsychology: Its Relation to Physics, Biology, Psychology,
and Psychiatry. 1976. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.
Methods for controlled research in ESP and PK. In B. Wolman (Ed.).
Handbook of Parapsychology, 1977. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
131-159.
Research findings in psychokinesis. In S. Krippner (Ed.). Advances in
Parapsychological Research, Vol. 1. Psychokinesis. New York, Plenum Press,
79-132.
PK research: Findings and theories. In S. Krippner (Ed.). Advances in
Parapsychological Research, Volume 3. 1982. New York: Plenum Press,
115-146.
Some guidelines from research findings. In I. Grattan-Guinness (Ed.).
Psychical Research: A guide to its history, principles, and practices.
1982. Wellingsborough, Great Britain: Aquarian Press, 265-283.
Parapsychology. In B. B. Wolman (Ed.). International Encyclopedia of
Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychoanalysis & Neurology. 1983, 8, 183-185.
Psychokinesis: The basic problem, research methods, and findings. In S.
Krippner (Ed.). Advances in Parapsychological Research, Volume 4. 1984.
Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 12-30.
Questions and attempts at answers. In R. Pilkington, Men and Women of
Parapsychology: Personal Reflections. 1987. Jefferson, NC: McFarland,
76-88.
Psychokinesis: Recent studies and a possible paradigm shift. In S.
Krippner, (Ed.). Advances in Parapsychological Research 5. 1987,
Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 76-88.
Parapsychology and Psychology: Matches and Mismatches. 1988. Jefferson,
NC: McFarland.
Problems raised by the concept of the survival of the personality after
death. In A. Berger, P. Batham, A. H. Kutscher, J. Berger, M. Perry, and
J. Beloff (Eds.). Death and Dying. 1989. Philadelphia: Charles Press,
197-208.
With L. Henkel (Eds.). Research in Parapsychology 1990. 1992. Metuchen,
NJ: Scarecrow Press
ESP experiments: The glass is half full. In S. Krippner (Ed.). Advances
in Parapsychological Research 7. 1994. Jefferson, NG: McFarland, 104-197.
PK: Recent research reports and a comparison with ESP. In S. Krippner
(Ed.). Advances in Parapsychological Research 7. 1984. Jefferson, NC:
McFarland, 198-237. We thanks the Parapsychological Association Board (www.parapsych.org) for the permission to publish the above material.
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